ALA

                                                         

Gender and ALE in Africa: with specific References to Tanzania

© Salma Maoulidi September 2008

 

Introduction

 

In 2003 Kimani Nganga Maruge hit the headlines when he became the oldest person alive to start primary school aged 84 years. The grandfather started Kapkenduiywa school in the western town of Eldoret on 12 January after the Kenyan government introduced free primary schooling in 2003. Four years later 88-year-old Kimani Nganga Maruge, has been forced to abandon his studies and move into a home for the aged, following the unrest which shook the country after the disputed December’s election’s result.

 

Kimani Nganga Maruge’s story is more than a news story. It forms part of the human interest genre of information that force us to think beyond the sensationalist urge. Indeed in bleak terms it explains the fate of most adults in Africa who aspire to acquire greater knowledge beyond what their life circumstance allowed. Sources have it that student Kimani Nganga Maruge has an interest in veterinary studies, perhaps to enable him to better look after his livestock. Sadly to fulfill his urge to learn he had to enroll in primary school at the ebb of his life sharing a class with six and seven year olds instead of with other adult learners. 

 

For activists and practitioners of adult learning and education (ALE) CONFINTEA represents an important juncture for Africa to assess the gaps in the conception and provision of learning and educational opportunities to adults. Uniquely, the global forum provides a platform for policy dialogue and advocacy on adult learning and education. CONFINTEA VI projected for May 2009 provides an opportunity to emphasize the relationship and contribution of adult learning and education to sustainable human development.

 

ALE Context in Africa

 

Adult Education is yet to be universal reality in most African countries. About 28.6% of Tanzanians can not read and write in any language. Illiteracy rate is higher among women at 36% compared to men at 20.4%. This is despite the fact that the Education Sector Development Programme (2000-2005) aimed at providing education for all by 2015.

 

Nevertheless, there has been a significant increase in enrolment rate in most African countries since the adoption of universal primary education (UPE). Progress is noted in the reduction of gender inequalities and geographical disparities. Access to secondary schools in the continent, however, remains low. In Tanzania, for example, it is below 20%, with fewer girls continuing with post primary education and learning opportunities. In Kenya, efforts have been made to increase access to technical and vocational education and training (TVET) but overall donors are reluctant to support such initiatives. For instance, in Tanzania ILO is the exception providing support to a pilot programme to increase girls’ enrolment in TVET centres.

 

Capacity- both human and material- in facilitating ALE remains a concern. Previously participants in the national services programmes were instrumental in running rural literacy programmes and extension services e.g. in health and agriculture. However, the National Service has been scrapped and efforts to revive it remain unrealized. Currently there are fewer and fewer spaces in training for ALE. In this respect Uganda is the exception in the region especially with respect to civil society engagement with ALE. Moreover the role of universities in ALE programmes is diminishing as students enroll in programmes promising more lucrative job opportunities.

 

The institutional mechanism to enable effective ALE simply does not exist. While it is purported that ALE is an integral part of the education system in practice there is very little coordination among the different providers of AE inside governmental institutions as well as outside those institutions. The management of ALE falls under ministries whose primary mandate is primary education. Previously, initiatives that targeted ALE programmes e.g. Folk Development Colleges were implemented in the Ministry responsible for community development.

 

This suggests a lack of systematization of AE in the ‘education system’. Accordingly Adult Education is consistently left out of official education reporting even among education networks though acknowledged as part of the education system. Meanwhile, alternative channels for non/informal education are under-developed including ICTs, trade schools, traditional institutions and local governance structures.

 

At the continental level there is a resurgence of Networks and Associations working on ALE. These include ANCEFA, FEMNET, PAALAE and PAMOJA. In May 2008 the African Platform for Adult Education was created to lend further impetus to ongoing efforts. Nevertheless the advocacy capacity of these bodies remains weak as most struggle for funding and recognition from official quarters. Also, the bodies struggle to popularize their agenda with more mainstream civil society organizations.

 

ALE and gender exclusion   

 

While it is the story of an old rural African man that bluntly reveals the status of ALE in the continent the face of illiteracy in Africa remains overwhelmingly female. Indeed, it is unlikely that stories of women of the type of Kimani Nganga Maruge will make the headlines of local and international media yet the inescapable reality of women’s exclusion from educational and learning opportunities continues to be systematically recorded in various human development and sectoral programmes progress indicators.

 

In almost every African country the literacy rates of women are lower than those of men. Literacy rates in Egypt 56.2% for women and 65.7% for males (2004 data). In Uganda it is 63% for women and 77% for men (2003 data). In Zambia it is 66% for women and 76% for men (2003 data). In Tanzania literacy rates are 62% for women and 69% for men.

 

Surely the high illiteracy rates among women in most African countries are indicative of the limited educational and learning opportunities available to women. Likewise the low presence of women in the formal labour sector and in professional sectors is suggestive of the low numbers of women excelling academically and professionally. Thus more women than men in Africa dwell in ignorance unable to make use of the myriad of opportunities available to them as free citizens.

 

Hitherto, illiteracy was confined to older women who under colonial and traditional regimes were denied educational opportunities. Yet the problem persists post UPE and also plagues young women: The literacy rate for youths between 15 and 24 in Tanzania is 81% for males and 76 for females while for illiteracy rate for young adults between 15-25 in Uganda it is 27% for women and 17% for men. Indeed as populations in the continent are faced with adverse economic circumstances, disease, natural disasters and internal strife resulting from civil conflicts girls futures are sacrificed adding to the already large burden of illiterate women.

 

The structural denial of learning and education opportunities proves costly to women and African nations as a whole. For instance the unacceptably high mortality rates among women in most African countries- in Tanzania maternal mortality is as high at 587 for every 100,000 live births- is not just indicative of the poor maternal health facilities and responses locally but also of the caliber of expectant mothers. African women continue to die not just because they are poor and can’t afford medical fees; or because of poor health systems.

 

Certainly, all these factors, and probably others, contribute to maternal mortality. Similarly a determining factor that determines who dies during labour or who uses maternal health facilities for delivery is a woman’s level of education. Smithson for example finds that women with a secondary education are over two and a half times more likely to deliver at a health facility than those without an education. Also regions with the highest education attainment also tend to be regions with the lowest under five mortality. 

 

Indeed, we must be able to explain the powerlessness of Africa women in various areas affecting their wellbeing and link the same to their lack of exposure to vital information on the one hand and the possibility to use that knowledge on the other. The disconnect between knowledge and practice in various Knowledge Attitude and Practice (KAP) surveys calls for scrutiny.

 

For instance Tanzania has high level of HIV/AIDS awareness among adults. Yet According to the Tanzania Reproductive and Child Health Survey (TRCHS) of 1999 only 4% of women use of condoms while a 2003 AYA study puts the figure at less than 1 %. Many women, and men, thus risk unwanted pregnancies and STIs/HIV/AIDS. The disconnect between HIV knowledge and safe sex practices makes Adult Education more than relevant for the wider population.

 

Yet, this is not the situation envisaged for Africa’s women under the African Renaissance

Specifically, Article 12 (2) the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003) instructs States Parties to take specific positive action to:

(a)     promote literacy among women;

(b)     promote education and training for women at all levels and in all disciplines, particularly in the fields of science and technology;

(c)     promote the enrolment and retention of girls in schools and other training institutions and the organisation of programmes for women who leave school prematurely.

 

Moreover, Article 2 of the Protocol calls on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women in Africa through appropriate legislative, institutional, regulatory and other measures at the local, national, regional and continental levels. Also states are required to integrate a gender perspective in their policy decisions, legislation, development plans, programmes and activities and in all other spheres of life; and to take corrective and positive action in those areas where discrimination against women in law and in fact continues to exist. Public education, information, education and communication strategies are seen to be important in realizing this.

 

The Policy Context

 

There is solid legal and policy ground to make a case for greater commitment towards ALE. Indeed, Article 17 (1) of the AU Charter states that “Every individual shall have the right to education”. This right has been extended to key groups in society including refugees and displaced persons, women and children.

 

Moreover, Article 11 of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania provides for the right to learn and puts duty on state to ensure right to work, self-education and social welfare for citizens. According to the article, the right to education is unlimited to a sole field of vocation and includes vocational and other institutions of learning.

 

In more countries, the policy framework is in place to support ALE. In Tanzania for example, the Education Policy includes Adult Education as part of non-formal education and training. It also provides that, ”Continuing education shall be an integral part of the education system”. Further, it states that, ” Universal Adult Literacy shall be accessible to all Adults. Basic literacy, post literacy and functional literacy programmes shall constitute essential components of the educational sysytem”.

 

Accordingly, Act No. 12 of 1975 mandates the Institute of Adult Education (IAE) to run continuing and non-formal education programmes, with a special emphasis on rural communities. IAE working under the Ministry of Education and Culture, is entasked to design, develop and make available and monitor the curricula for literacy, post literacy and functional literacy programmes.

 

Thus, the Education Act 1978 directs all educational institutions in Tanzania to be designated Centers for Adult Learning. The Ministry responsible for teacher education is tasked with the training of a cadre of Adult Education  teachers and tutors. It also directs Functional Literacy Programmes to be designed and developed in response to the socio-economic needs of neo-literates. To improve national literacy levels, national literacy tests are to be conducted every three years.

 

In 2003 the Adult and Non-Formal Education Strategy was developed to facilitate the implementation of an alternative education programme for out-of-school children, youth and adults. Nevertheless, the main focus of major education initiatives purported to focus on adult learning targets youths and not individuals and groups past their youth. Where adults are targeted as is in the case with initiatives of continuing education provided under employment packages then the focus tends to be on workers in formal placements leaving the bulk of workers in the informal sector outside the reach of a comprehensive adult learning strategy.

 

The Tanzanian government has incorporated the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in the PRSP. This facilitates periodic monitoring of set targets as part of the country’s progress review. Sadly, while there is some attention to gender MDG goals related to education focus more on elementary education not Adult Education.

 

Importantly while there is policy commitment for ALE this is watered down by the fact that the education budget, as is the overall development budget, remains donor dependent. Also very little is channeled to skills and resources needed to support mainstreaming of Adult Education including literacy and skill development. Most of the allocated sums are used to cover overheads and thus there is very little room for innovations and investment in learners. This raises key concerns as to the ability of the Tanzania Government to ensure Education for All come 2015.

 

Despite its crucial role in national development there is very little advocacy undertaken by the National Association of Adult Education or the National Institute of AE. Moreover, few CSO at local levels work exclusively in AE perhaps on account of the undue interest in primary education. In Tanzania the association concerned with ALE consists mostly of Ministry of Education official or ex-ALE tutors denying it much needed interdisciplinary and activist flair.

 

ALE for Functional Citizenship  

 

Jacob Erle, from the International Academy of Education and Democracy (IAED) sees the purpose of Adult Education as to increase citizens’ ability to participate in democratic spaces particularly in politics and governance either individually or as part of a group e.g. civil society.

 

In stark contrast to the OAU set up, the AU envisages an engaged citizenry in the affairs of continental and regional bodies. HURISA avers that the African Union (AU) has placed human rights, democracy and the increased participation of civil society in its processes at the forefront of its new vision. Accordingly, the AU structure has made allocation for CSO participation at various levels of the AU structure. Specifically the AU’s Civil Society Forum held in advance of each Summit provides a space to discuss AU programmes and policies.

 

Undeniably the onset of political liberalization which in most African countries occurred synonymously with the economic liberalization expanded the avenues for citizen engagement. Thus, for example, Article 20 of the Tanzania Constitution recognizes the right to association while Article 21 grants every citizen the right to participate in public affairs and governance of the country.

 

One of the most direct way citizens can engage is by working and holding office which rights is recognized under Article 22. Participating in democratic spaces is the only way by which citizen’s can claim their constitutional and legal rights. In this way, the right to learn is central in realizing to social inclusion and extends beyond the concern with cognitive abilities but providing learners with social competencies

 

This vision must, however, be contrasted with the reality pertaining on the ground a reality that is equally influenced by the policy changes. Avenues for ALE such as through extension workers broken under Local Government Reforms. Hence during the interval between 2002-03 only about 35% of small holders received extension advice in Tanzania. Also, a significant number (31%) of the head of households of all small holders surveyed have no education.

 

Poverty Reduction Strategies and ALE.

 

During the period under review official ODA for Africa has fallen since 2003 i.e. 38% in 2003, 37% in 2004 and 33% in 2005 compared to 44% in the early 90’s. In the same vein support to the education sector has fallen from 7% in 2004 to 5% in 2005.The Dakar +7 Progress Report asserts that only a small share of funds allocated to the sector are actually committed for education mobilization efforts.

 

The experience of African countries with various economic development prescriptions has proved disastrous. Macro economic reforms are yet to make a significant difference in reducing poverty for the average citizen with most African countries being worse off economically than they were immediately after independence. Coksey observes that, “..Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs) came to replace structural adjustment as the new global aid orthodoxy… But the core policy components of structural adjustment- fiscal austerity, market liberalization, privatization and an open trade regime- have been carried over intact from SAPs to PRS”.

 

Thus in spite of ‘pro- poor’ orientation PRS attracts mixed reviews in Africa. Reviewing the findings of countries studies from five countries on their experiences with PRS processes, Femnet concludes that despite various policies and programmes aims at gender equity and mainstreaming, gender inequalities persist. Femnet notes that the nature, causes and impacts of poverty are different for men and women.

 

While in recent years most African countries record improvements in economic indicators, they are not enough to achieve the targets set for gender equality and poverty reduction, especially among rural households. Centrally there are few shifts in the pattern of expenditures and the key constraints to service delivery are yet to be addressed. Thus while strategic investment in agriculture is necessary to accelerate the rate of growth to reduce rural poverty, foreign investments in agriculture remains limited.

 

Undeniably the focus on economic development at the expense of social development has proved devastating for social services including for education. Specifically tertiary and ALE have suffered as attention rests with UPE. For instance, reporting on MGD goals only looks at indicators concerned with primary education. The ALE sector has largely been neglected. The over attention to UPE is also apparent among CSOs. For example the Femnet PRS review only reports on primary education and some instances on secondary and tertiary levels. While all acknowledge the vital role of education in national development none of the reports alluded to or reported to AE.

 

 

Conclusion

 

The continued presence of an uneducated or poorly educated class is a liability not only for development but to the notion of social inclusion and active citezenship. Promoting the right to learn is thus critical. However meeting key EFA and MDG targets proves precarious in a context of poor investments to the sector. Also gender disparities in educational and learning opportunities exert a toll on overall performance.

 

The Mkukuta Status Reports indicate clearly that the goals for growth, social wellbeing and governance are at varying stages of compliance including those related to education. In principle a number of policies in place afford opportunities under which ALE can take place in a relevant and holistic manner, far more advanced and democratic than the traditional literacy and numeracy skills classes. Certainly creating an environment for broader and meaningful citizen participation remains a challenge not only for governance but also for ALE approaches in Africa.

 

Best Practices from Tanzania

 

Ü Design of Functional Literacy Programmes to be developed in response to the socio-economic needs of neo-literates.

 

Ü National literacy tests are to be conducted every three years to monitor and improve national literacy levels.

 

Ü Ministry adopts an alternative paradigm to learning. Specifically it is piloting the Integrated Community Based Adult Education in four areas.

 

Ü Ministry of Education in Tanzania Mainland issued the Education Circular No. 3 of 2006 requiring every LGA to earmark a budget to finance ALE activities. It also proposes to elevate the existing funding level to at least three per cent (3%) of the budget for education sector.

 

Ü The Adult and Non-Formal Education Strategy was developed in 2003 to facilitate the implementation of an alternative education programme for out-of-school children, youth and adults.

 

Ü MDG goals and targets are part of the PRS in Tanzania. A special Unit has been set up to monitor progress and to evaluate the appropriateness of indicators and targets in regular fashion availing vital and timely information.

 

Ü Strong focus of Ale programmes on young adults e.g. COBET

 

 

 

ACRONMYS

 

AIDS              Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndromme

ALE                Adult Learning and Education

AU                  African Union

AYA               Africa Youth Alliance

CONFINTEA International Conference on Adult Education

CSO                Civil Society Organizations

ECA                Economic Commission for Africa

FAWE             Forum for African Women Educationalists

Femnet            African Women Development and Communications Network

HIV                 Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Hurisa              Huma Rights Institute of South Africa

IIZ/DVV         German Adult Education Association

ILO                 International Labour Organization

KAP                Knowledge Attitude Practice

MDG               Millennium Development Goals

ODA               Official Development Assistance

PRS                 Poverty Reduction Strategy

PRSP               Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

SAPs               Structural Adjustment Programmes

SID                 Society for International Development

STIs                 Sexually Transmitted Infections

TRCHS           Tanzania Reproductive and Child Health Survey

UNESCO        United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UPE                Universal Primary Education

URT                United Republic of Tanzania